Radiography is the primary imaging modality for diagnosing and staging knee osteoarthritis (OA). Characteristic radiographic features allow assessment of OA severity and progression over time. Understanding the typical radiographic presentation of knee OA is important for clinical decision making and monitoring.

The earliest radiographic sign of knee OA is joint space narrowing, indicating loss of cartilage. This begins medially, reflecting higher loads transmitted across this compartment. Additional early findings include subchondral sclerosis, osteophyte formation, and subcortical cysts at the tibia and femur. Synovial thickening and suprapatellar joint effusions may also be present. These changes often first manifest 2-4 years after knee injury.

Gradual progression of medial joint space narrowing is the hallmark finding of advancing knee OA. Laterally, the joint space remains preserved until end-stage disease. Each 1 mm of joint space loss increases medial compartment loads by up to 20%. Loss of 50% medial joint space height predicts poor clinical outcomes. Quantifying and tracking joint space width allows assessment of OA severity and progression.

As OA progresses, marginal osteophytes enlarge and subarticular cysts become more pronounced. Accessory ossicles may develop in tendon attachments. Full thickness loss of articular cartilage leads to bone-on-bone apposition and subchondral sclerosis. Eventually the lateral compartment also narrows significantly, indicating end-stage changes. Knee malalignment accelerates joint deterioration, especially with varus or valgus thrust.

The severity of radiographic knee OA only moderately correlates to symptoms like pain and stiffness. Up to 50% of those with radiographic changes are asymptomatic. However, advanced imaging confirms structural deterioration does relate to functional decline. Radiographs best identify macroscopic OA progression rather than symptomatic changes.

In summary, serial radiographs looking for joint space narrowing provide the standard diagnostic imaging for knee OA. Correlation with advanced imaging and clinical findings allows optimal assessment of disease status.

Knee osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common joint disorder and a frequent cause of disability. The typical symptoms arise from a complex interplay of articular cartilage loss, synovial inflammation, bone changes, and secondary muscular impairments. Understanding the cardinal symptomatic manifestations of knee OA is essential for diagnosis and monitoring.

Knee pain is the primary clinical complaint of individuals with OA. Initially, pain may only occur with activity. As OA advances, pain becomes more constant and disruptive. Typical descriptions include an achy, throbbing pain that is worse with weightbearing. Night pain and rest pain often develop in late-stage OA. Swelling, joint stiffness, and crepitus commonly accompany OA knee pain. The severity often fluctuates, with weather changes and overactivity aggravating symptoms.

Progressive loss of knee function parallels increasing pain in OA. Activities like walking, rising from a chair, and stair climbing become progressively more difficult. Eventual limitations in daily tasks reduce independence and quality of life. Quadriceps weakness and altered gait mechanics contribute to functional decline. Patient-reported outcome scores quantify OA impact on physical function. Scores worsen an average of 3-4% yearly as OA advances.

The degenerative process diminishes knee stability in some OA patients. Laxity coupled with muscle weakness leads to episodes of buckling, shifting, or giving way. This causes concern about falling and avoidance of activities. Varus or valgus thrust seen on examination may indicate worsening instability. However, joint laxity does not correlate with radiographic disease severity or pain levels.

Joint stiffness and reduced range of motion frequently accompany OA. Contracture first develops in knee extension, followed by flexion loss in late-stage disease. Heberden’s nodes visible at the finger joints reflect an underlying generalized limitation in mobility. Morning gelling and difficulty initiating movement are common complaints. Range of motion declines approximate 1-3 degrees yearly as OA progresses.

In summary, the cardinal symptomatic features of knee OA include chronic pain, progressive functional impairment, episodic instability, and worsening stiffness or mobility loss. These symptoms often severely reduce quality of life and ability to remain active. Understanding the typical clinical presentation is key for appropriate management.

Nonoperative management focused on symptom relief and maintenance of function is the cornerstone of knee osteoarthritis (OA) treatment. Common strategies include weight loss, physical therapy, medications, injections, bracing, and activity modification. Evidence supports various nonsurgical approaches for initial OA management.

Educating patients about OA pathophysiology, treatment options, and self-management helps empower involvement in care. Patient education correlates with increased adherence to recommended treatments and exercise. Information on activity modification, joint protection during tasks, and weight management is essential.

Supervised exercise provides short and long-term symptomatic relief while improving function in knee OA. Aquatic exercises, individualized strength training, and neuromuscular re-education are most beneficial. Tai chi and yoga help improve balance and proprioception. Adherence is crucial for sustained improvements.

Reducing body mass lessens joint loads and inflammation, correlating with OA pain relief.5 Each 1 kg of weight loss reduces knee joint loads by 4 kg. A 5-10% loss of body weight reduces OA symptoms 20-50%. Dietary changes and increased activity facilitate weight reduction.

Unloader braces and lateral heel wedges aim to reduce medial compartment pressures. Canes and walkers relieve weightbearing stresses. Evidence for sustained bracing benefits is limited, but periodic use may help during flares.

Topical NSAIDs provide local analgesia with minimal systemic effects. Oral NSAIDs and acetaminophen are used short-term for flares. Tramadol or opioids can be considered for refractory pain if risks are acceptable. Hyaluronic acid injections may provide up to 6 months symptom relief.

Avoiding high-impact activities helps prevent OA exacerbations. Pacing and scheduling rest periods makes tasks more tolerable. Assistive devices facilitate weightbearing activities like standing or walking. Activity modification aims to maintain current function rather than worsening symptoms.

In summary, a combination of nonsurgical treatments offers the best results for knee OA. Patient participation in the management plan is key. Surgery is reserved for severe, refractory cases or joint failure.

Intraarticular injections provide symptomatic relief for knee osteoarthritis (OA) patients who have failed conservative treatment. The two leading options are hyaluronic acid (HA) viscosupplementation and platelet-rich plasma (PRP). Multiple randomized trials allow comparison of their clinical efficacy.

Exogenous HA aims to restore the viscoelastic properties of synovial fluid, which are reduced in OA. HA may also have anti-inflammatory effects. In contrast, growth factors concentrated in PRP act on joint tissues to potentially stimulate cartilage repair and inhibit inflammatory mediators. The biologic mechanisms differ, but both aim to improve joint homeostasis.

Patients report significant pain relief as early as 2 weeks after PRP injection, with peak effects at 8 weeks. HA injections elicit more gradual onset of symptom relief, taking 4-6 weeks to maximize benefits. However, HA effects last significantly longer. Pain reduction persists up to 26 weeks after HA injection, while PRP benefits subside after 6-9 months. Repeat injections can prolong durability of both treatments.

Both HA and PRP injections improve self-reported function in knee OA patients based on validated outcome scores. HA provides sustained functional benefits up to 26 weeks.6 PRP also significantly improves short-term function, but gains attenuate after 6 months. The treatments are comparable regarding functional improvement in the first 3-6 months.

There is no evidence that either HA or PRP injections slow structural progression of knee OA based on joint space narrowing. Both provide purely symptomatic relief without disease-modifying effects. However, symptom control facilitates retention of functional abilities, which is the primary goal.

The longer duration of HA effect allows less frequent repeat injections, with typical spacing of 6 months. PRP requires more frequent repeating, often at intervals of 3-4 months, due to faster waning of benefits. Over 2-3 years, patients receive 30-50% fewer HA injections compared to PRP. This makes HA potentially more cost-effective long-term.

In summary, both HA and PRP offer comparable symptomatic relief in knee OA. PRP works faster, but HA provides more sustained benefit. The choice involves balancing onset versus duration when determining injection frequency. Further study on optimizing PRP preparations may prolong its effects.

Bracing is a potential treatment option aimed at unloading damaged knee joint compartments in osteoarthritis (OA). Evidence supports bracing for short-term symptomatic relief, but effects on long-term outcomes remain unclear. Appropriate patient selection is important.

Braces and orthotics mechanically unload the affected compartment by applying a corrective force. This aims to redistribute forces away from arthritic areas vulnerable to compressive loads. Additionally, many braces provide added stability and proprioceptive feedback that could reduce pain with movement.

Knee braces fall into main categories: prophylactic/rehabilitative, functional, and unloader braces. For OA, unloader braces are most appropriate to provide compartment offloading. These rigid braces have condylar pads that apply a corrective force, usually medially for medial compartment OA.

In the short-term, unloader bracing over 6 weeks-6 months consistently demonstrates pain reduction in knee OA versus no bracing. Improvements in function scores, walking speed, and balance are also seen. However, patient compliance with brace use tends to decline over time. Extended use over 1-2 years shows more variable functional benefits.

The knee adduction moment reflecting medial compartment load is lowered by 5-10% with bracing based on gait studies. However, this does not strongly correlate to symptom changes, perhaps due to brace migration. The durability of biomechanical effects, like the clinical effects, remains questionable.

Ideal candidates for unloader bracing have symptomatic, unicompartmental OA with biomechanical alignment amenable to offloading. Varus or valgus OA patterns respond best. Bracing should be avoided in severe tricompartmental OA or with significant rotational deformities.

Documented risks of knee bracing include skin irritation, added stresses to other joints, and muscle atrophy if overused. These issues can limit tolerance. Braces are also costly and often not covered by insurance plans. Careful patient selection and treatment goals are warranted.

In summary, compartment unloader braces can provide symptomatic relief for knee OA short-term, but long-term superiority over other conservative measures is unproven. Appropriate patient selection, education, and monitoring are necessary to maximize benefits while minimizing potential downsides of bracing.

End-stage knee osteoarthritis refractory to conservative treatment may warrant surgical management with arthroplasty. The primary options include unicompartmental knee arthroplasty (UKA) or total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Selection criteria differ based on disease distribution and patient factors.

Isolated medial or lateral compartment osteoarthritis with full thickness cartilage loss is the classic indication for UKA. Preserved cartilage in other compartments is required. Up to 20% joint space narrowing may be acceptable in other areas. Varus or valgus deformity should be correctable to neutral alignment. UKA is not appropriate for patellofemoral disease.

Younger patients are better candidates for UKA given higher activity demands. Older, sedentary patients place lower stresses across the arthroplasty so TKA longevity is less crucial. UKA aims to more closely restore native knee kinematics for high function. The 10-year survival averages 95% for UKA patients under age 65.

UKA facilitates high flexion activities and normal gait mechanics compared to TKA. Thus, UKA is preferred for manual laborers or athletes desiring higher function. However, TKA reliability may outweigh kinematic advantages of UKA in lower demand elderly patients.

Lower body mass index (BMI) below 35 is preferred for UKA success, as higher BMIs increase wear and aseptic loosening risks.5 The minimally invasive approach also becomes more difficult with higher BMI. For obese patients, TKA is generally more appropriate.

A contralateral healthy knee or UKA allows better comparison and rehabilitation after UKA. Patients with prior contralateral TKA do worse with UKA on the opposite side and should match with TKA instead.7 Limb asymmetry after different procedures should be avoided.

In summary, UKA offers advantages for younger, active patients with isolated unicompartmental osteoarthritis and lower BMI. TKA remains preferable for older, less active patients with multipartite disease, high BMI, or prior knee replacements. Thorough assessment provides optimal implant selection.

Adequate preoperative preparation and optimization is crucial for safe total knee arthroplasty (TKA) and good postoperative outcomes. Key elements include medical management, physical conditioning, patient education, and social support planning. Addressing modifiable risks preoperatively can reduce complications after TKA surgery.

Comorbid conditions like obesity, diabetes, hypertension, smoking, and anemia should be medically optimized. Losing weight, improving glycemic control, regulating blood pressure, smoking cessation, and iron supplementation all help reduce perioperative risks. Anticoagulation management is planned.

Protein intake and vitamin levels are screened and treated to help wound healing. Albumin levels predict outcomes. Malnutrition risks are addressed via diet, supplements, or referrals. Preoperative carbohydrate loading prepares metabolism for surgery and may reduce insulin resistance.

Improving flexibility, muscle strength and endurance preoperatively enhances functional recovery. Aquatic therapy, home exercises, neuromuscular training, and gait aids expedite mobility gains after surgery. Stopping high-impact activities preoperatively also protects the joint.

Anti-inflammatory medications are typically held 1-2 weeks before surgery to reduce bleeding risks. Aspirin may be continued for cardiac patients. Reviewing supplements for their potential interactions is prudent. Pain medications are weaned appropriately.

Providing information on preoperative care, the procedure, rehabilitation stages, and expectations helps reduce anxiety while promoting participation in recovery. Clarifying restrictions, precautions, and follow-up needs ensures readiness.

Identifying family members or friends who can provide transportation to appointments, assistance at home, and emotional encouragement optimizes the support system. Preparing the post-discharge home environment also facilitates rehabilitation.

In summary, preoperative TKA preparation encompasses medical, physical, educational, and social dimensions. Addressing modifiable risks and enlisting social support improves patient outcomes during the surgical episode of care. Thorough preoperative optimization is invaluable.

Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) aims to resurface damaged articulations and recreate stable, pain-free motion in end-stage knee osteoarthritis. Precise surgical technique and execution are vital for clinical outcomes and implant longevity. The basic steps include exposure, bony resection, component placement, fixation, and closure.

A midline skin incision and medial parapatellar arthrotomy allow exposure of the joint. The patella is retracted but not everted. Lateral releases balance the soft tissues. Visualization of the diseased surfaces and axes guides resection.

Distal femoral cuts are made first based on flexion/extension gaps. An intramedullary guide aligns the distal femoral resection perpendicular to the mechanical axis in the coronal and sagittal planes. The posterior femoral condyles are then resected, creating a rectangular flexion space.

Extramedullary tibial guides help achieve a 90 degree resection perpendicular to the tibial axis. The tibial slope matches the natural posterior inclination. Resection depth leaves a uniform rim of bone for cement fixation. The tibia is sized and prepared for the implant.

The native patellar thickness determines the amount resected to avoid overstuffing. Diseased cartilage is removed, leaving subchondral bone. Smooth cuts avoid fractures. Insetting the component avoids patellar maltracking. Resurfacing reduces anterior knee pain.

Trial inserts establish balanced flexion and extension spaces. A trial reduction tests motion and alignment. Measurements guide any adjustments needed before final component implantation. Permanent components are cemented or press-fit based on fixation choice.

The arthrotomy is closed, followed by deep dermal and skin closure. Local anesthetics are injected around the joint. Sterile dressings and compressive bandages are applied to complete the procedure.

In summary, precise bone cuts, soft tissue balancing, and methodical trialing allow accurate placement of TKA components in proper alignment for pain relief and restoration of function. Attention to each step optimizes clinical outcomes.

Robotic systems have been introduced in total knee arthroplasty (TKA) to improve component position and surgical precision. Multiple randomized trials now allow comparison of robotic-assisted TKA to conventional techniques.

Robotic TKA results in fewer knee alignment outliers compared to traditional methods based on postoperative imaging. Robotic assistance reduces variance from desired alignment goals, with fewer knees falling outside the targeted coronal plane range. This could enhance implant survival.

Some robotic platforms quantify ligament tensions and gaps to help balance flexor and extensor mechanisms. This could optimize contact stresses and patellar tracking compared to traditional manual balancing. However, effects on functional outcomes are unclear.

Existing robotic TKA systems require larger incisions for bone referencing and robot arm positioning. Increased surgical dissection could raise risks of pain and complications compared to minimally invasive surgery. Comparative injury rates are not yet well studied.

Early data shows robotic TKA provides similar functional improvement and pain relief by 6-12 months postoperatively compared to conventional TKA.5 Range of motion and gait parameters are also comparable between techniques. Long-term monitoring is still needed.

The impact of robotic TKA on implant survivorship and revision rates is not yet known, given its relatively recent development. Theoretically, improved position and balancing could reduce wear and failure. However, no long-term revision comparisons exist to date.

Robotic systems involve high capital, disposable, and service costs. The charges add thousands of dollars per case compared to traditional TKA methods. It is unclear if the clinical benefits of robotics justify the added expense for hospitals and payers.

In summary, robotic guidance improves component positioning in TKA but long-term superiority over conventional techniques remains unproven. Comparative functional outcomes, complications, revisions rates, and cost-effectiveness require further study to justify routine adoption of robotic platforms.

Physical therapy is crucial after total knee arthroplasty (TKA) to help patients maximize function and outcomes. Evidence-based rehabilitation protocols progress through phases focused on protection, mobility, strength, and conditioning. Compliance with physical therapy is associated with better recovery.

Early emphasis is on reducing swelling and pain while restoring range of motion. Use of cold therapy, compression, elevation, and ambulation help limit edema. Passive range of motion exercise is initiated, focusing first on knee extension. Muscle activation and re-education begin with quadriceps sets and straight leg raises. Weightbearing is restricted initially.

As pain and swelling subside, active range of motion exercises and muscle strengthening progress. Closed chain exercises like mini-squats are introduced. Resistive exercises increase lower extremity strength and power in a functional position. Crutches are weaned and normal gait patterns retrained. Cryotherapy continues for pain and effusion.

Advanced strengthening and conditioning prepare patients for higher level activities. Eccentric step-downs, lunges, and balance drills improve stability and proprioception. Light sports-specific actions rehearse pivoting, cutting, and jumping. Criteria for discharge include pain control, strength and motion recovery, and independence with activities.

Continued adherence to hip and core strengthening, cardiovascular exercise, and neuromuscular training helps maintain outcomes from TKA over years. Weight management optimizes joint loading. Preventing other joint problems promotes lifelong activity. Periodic follow-up helps track function. Most patients see benefits for 15-20 years postoperatively.

In summary, rehabilitation progresses through phases focused on mobility, strength, conditioning, and skills training. Patient participation is key for optimizing outcomes after TKA surgery. Physical therapy facilitates lasting functional gains.

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is a devastating complication after total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Strategies for preventing late hematogenous infections are important for maintaining implant longevity. Basic principles include maintaining immunity, monitoring for infection, treating comorbidities, and appropriate antibiotic use.

Annual influenza vaccination and staying current on other immunizations is crucial to avoid infectious illnesses. Good nutrition and physical activity support the immune system. Regular healthcare can detect and treat conditions early. Ongoing medical management of comorbid diseases also helps prevent infections.

Routine dental cleanings and procedures help maintain gingival health and avoid bacteria entering the bloodstream. Informing dentists about the TKA can guide antibiotic selection if needed. Some guidelines call for antibiotic prophylaxis prior to dental work within the first 2 years after TKA.

Any signs or symptoms of infection warrant prompt investigation, including persistent fever, swelling, wound drainage, or joint pain. Bloodwork, joint aspiration, and imaging can diagnose an infection early when it is most treatable. Close follow-up ensures infections are not missed.

Antibiotics should be used judiciously after TKA only for proven infections to avoid resistance. Empiric antibiotic courses without a definitive diagnosis can miss the optimal therapeutic window. Culture-directed antibiotic selection is preferred.

Careful cleansing and protection of open wounds, skin ulcers, or infections remote from the TKA prevent seeding deep infections. Small cuts should be monitored for signs of infection and treated promptly. Good hygiene is important.

In summary, maintaining wellness and immunity coupled with early infection detection optimizes prevention of late TKA infections. Patient education on precautions and prompt reporting of symptoms is key for successful long-term arthroplasty results.

Two techniques aim to improve alignment in total knee arthroplasty (TKA): patient-specific instrumentation and kinematic alignment. Each uses different principles to better replicate native anatomy and knee function. Prospective studies allow comparison of their relative merits.

Preoperative MRI and long-leg films generate cutting guides customized to the individual’s anatomy. Theoretically this provides more accurate, reproducible alignment versus standard instruments. However, outliers still occur due to technique errors. Costs and surgical time are increased with little proven benefit.

The goal is aligning components to restore native joint lines and ligament tension. More physiologic tibiofemoral rotation and patellofemoral tracking are achieved. Early functional results are improved, though impact on implant survival is unknown. It remains a challenging technique.

Both techniques prolong the surgical procedure. Kinematic TKA requires extensive soft tissue releases and measurements. Patient-specific guides still require intraoperative confirmation and adjustments as needed. The learning curve extends operative time.

Kinematic alignment shows promising reductions in variance from normal axes compared to mechanical alignment TKA. Patient-specific guides yield high early variability in studies as surgeons gain experience. Kinematic principles may yield more consistent results.

Kinematic alignment aims to improve function, though effects on gait and strength have been variable. Some trials show earlier recovery versus mechanical TKA. Comparisons to patient-specific instrumentation have not shown differences in functional scores or range of motion.

Kinematic alignment has a high rate of intraoperative crossover to conventional alignment when ligament releases fail to adequately balance the knee. Patient-specific guides function as cutting blocks so do not have conversion issues, but alignment may still be suboptimal.

In summary, both new techniques aim for more anatomically aligned TKA. Kinematic principles show early promise to improve function but remain challenging. Patient-specific guides have not proven superior despite higher costs. Long-term implant survival data is needed.

The primary goal of total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is restoring function to improve mobility and allow participation in activities. Prospective studies consistently show significant functional gains after TKA for knee osteoarthritis. However, the magnitude of improvement varies based on multiple factors.

Patients with poorer preoperative function and higher disability demonstrate the greatest improvements in outcome scores after surgery. Those with very advanced disease due to severe pain and stiffness have more room for functional gain. Milder preoperative disability correlates with smaller gains.

Comorbidities like heart and lung disease, diabetes, and obesity negatively impact functional outcomes from TKA. Systemic health challenges make rehabilitation more difficult. Addressing comorbidities preoperatively helps optimize functional recovery.

Patients with higher preoperative expectations and more positive psychological outlooks toward TKA experience better function postoperatively. Motivation strongly influences effort invested in recovery. Unrealistic expectations beyond average results can also lead to disappointment.

Surgical complications like arthrofibrosis markedly reduce postoperative TKA function. Other complications such as persistent pain, instability, infection, and venous thromboembolism also negatively impact functional outcomes. Avoiding adverse events is key.

Patients who actively participate in and adhere to postoperative rehabilitation have substantially higher functional gains from 6 weeks to 2 years after surgery. Compliance with exercise and mobility activity maximizes results.

In summary, patients with worse baseline function and fewer comorbidities tend to experience the greatest functional improvements from TKA. However, controlling expectations, avoiding complications, and commitment to rehabilitation play pivotal roles in optimizing individual outcomes.